Bryophytes Pteridophytes

 Bryophytes Pteridophytes

  Introduction: In this chapter, Bryophytes Pteridophytes we will discuss in detail. Bryophytes - Bryon means moss, phyton means plant, and Pteridophytes - Pteris means fern, phyton means plant. Stem, leaves, and roots are not present in bryophytes. Instead of roots rhizoids occurs in bryophytes. Pteridophytes contains true stem, leaves, and roots. Pteridophytes are seedless and cryptogamic vascular plants.

Characteristic features of Bryophytes:

• Bryophytes are non vascular plants.
• They are small.
• They have haploid gametophyte.
• They are found in damp and shady areas.
• They grow during the rainy season.
• The maximum height of moss is 60 cm.
• Rhizoids are found.
• Roots are not present.
• Fragmentation, adventitious branches, tubers are helped in vegetative reproduction.
• Sex organs are jacketed.
• Antheridium is male and the female organ is the archegonium.
• Antheridia are rounded and Archegonia are flask-shaped.
• Antheridium is generally motile and Archegonium is non-motile.
• Water is required for male gamete.
• The cuticle is not present on the plant body.
• Mechanical tissue is also absent.
• Sporogonium is dependent on gametophyte.
• The alternation of generation is heteromorphic.

Terrestrial Amphibians:

• Bryophytes are known as terrestrial amphibians.
• Water is required for existence.
• Water is required for the swimming of male gametes.
• Water also protects from transpiration.

Types of Bryophytes: Hepaticopsida, Anthoceropsida, and Bryopsida.

A) Hepaticopsida: They are found in damp soil, trees, ground, and woods, The thallus is flattened, rhizoids are unicellular, parasitic sporogonium, and multicellular scales are present. Examples: Riccia, Sphaerocarpos, Marchantia, Pellia, etc.

 Marchantia - It is small approximately in length is 2-10 cm.

• Photosynthetic filaments are present.
• Smooth walled and tuberculate rhizoids are present.
• Fragmentation, regeneration, and gemmae help in vegetative reproduction.
• Gemmae are biscuit-shaped structures and are borne inside the gemma cups.
• Marchantia having gametophores.
• The Gametophore of the female is archegoniophore and the gametophore of the male is antheridiophore.
• Antheridiophore having eight lobed receptacle.
• Archegoniophore having nine rays receptacle.
• Archegonium having perigynium and a tubular neck.
• The zygote is formed by fertilization.
• Foot, seta, and capsule have parts of Sporogonium.

Marchantia

B) Bryopsida: They have radial symmetry, oblique septa, and branched filament. Sporangium contains columella, assimilatory tissue, and peristome. Examples: Funaria, Sphagnum, Polytrichum, etc.

Funaria - It is small approximately 3-5 cm in height.

• Plant show radial symmetry.
• Rhizoids are multicellular with oblique septa.
• The leaves have midrib.
• Lateral and extraaxillary branching is found.
• The epidermis of the Stem is a single layer.
• Stem and Leaves are gametophytic.
• Vegetative reproduction occurs through Fragmentation.
• The male receptacle contains antheridia and is knobbed.
• The female receptacle contains archegonia and paraphyses.
• Antheridium contains sperm mother cells.
• Archegonium contains a canal cell and a large egg.
• Sporogonium has a foot, curved seta, and asymmetrical capsule.
• The capsule contains nonphotosynthetic columella.
• Filamentous protonema stage is present.

Funaria

See Also: Diversity Living World

Biological Classification

Algae Rhodophyta Phaeophyta Chlorophyta

Economic Importance of Bryophytes: 

• Bryophytes help in the prevention of soil erosion.
• They help in the formation of soil.
• Sphagnum moss is used as a retention of water.
• Peat is used as fuel and manure also.
• Mosses are used as animal food.

PTERIDOPHYTES:

• They are found in shady areas and cool places.
• They are seedless plants.
• Vascular tissues are present.
• Approximately 13000 species are found.
• The plant is differentiated into Leaves, stem, and roots.
• Leaves may be macrophyllous and microphyllous.
• True vessels are absent in Xylem.
• Sieve tube and companion cells are absent in Phloem.
• Spores can be homosporous and heterosporous.
• Heterosporous having microspores and megaspores.
• The gametophyte is independent.
• Antheridia is male and Archegonia is a female sex organ.
• Sperm require water to reach the archegonia.
• Examples: Equisetum, Selaginella, Dryopteris, etc.

Pteridophytes

Economic Importance of Pteridophytes:

• Pteridophytes contain a food source eat by some tribals.
• They have the capability to bind the soil and prevent erosion.
• Also, use for cleaning and polishing metals.
• Azolla shows a symbiotic association.
• Dryopteris show medicinal properties.
• Ferns show the ornamental property.

Classes of Pteridophyta:

1. Psilopsida: 

• Rhizoids are present.
• Aerial stems are photosynthetic.
• Sporangia develop either axially or terminally.
• Cooksonia and Rhynia are primitive forms.

2. Lycopsida:

• The plant is differentiated into stem, leaves, and roots.
• Microphyllous leaves are present.
• A branch is dichotomous.
• Examples: Selaginella, Lycopodium, etc.

3. Sphenopsida:

• A jointed stem is present.
• Multiflagellate spermatozoids are present.
• Example: Equisetum

Selaginella

• Some species form brown balls during the dry season.
• When water is available it turns in green color.
• Leaves are microphyllous.
• Adventitious roots are present.
• Tubers, fragmentation, and bulbils for vegetative reproduction.
• A plant having microspore and megaspore.
• Microsporangia produce haploid microspores.
• Megasporangia produce haploid megaspores.
• Male gametophyte consists prothallial cell and antheridia.
• Female gametophyte consists of endosperm, marginal rhizoids.
• The structure of archegonium is flask-shaped.
• The diploid zygote is formed by fertilization.

Life-cycle-selaginella

Equisetum

• The plant is differentiated into leaves, root, and stem.
• Rhizome and aerial branches are two components of the stem.
• Aerial branches perform the photosynthesis process.
• The xylem contains xylem vessels.
• In arvense species brown aerial branch is fertile.

Fern

• Fern is found in temperate and humid tropics areas.
• It is a seedless plant.
• The plant is differentiated into Leaves, stem, and roots.
• Its maximum height is 20 m.
• It bears adventitious roots.
• It has large leaves called Fronds.
• Leaves can be simple, unipinnate, bipinnate, or tripinnate.
• Open furcate venation is found in the leaves.
• Sporophylls are present.
• Bulbils, rhizome, and adventitious buds help in vegetative reproduction.
• Prothallus having sex organs.
• The Male sex organ is antheridia.
• The Female sex organ is archegonia.
• Sperms are multiflagellate.

Life-cycle-Dryopteris

Conclusion: The plant body of bryophyte is gametophyte and the plant body of pteridophyte is the sporophyte. Pteridophyte contains Vascular tissues.

In this chapter, Bryophytes Pteridophytes above the information is completed in detail with images.

See Also: Protista Protozoan Plasmodium

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Algae Rhodophyta Phaeophyta Chlorophyta

Algae Rhodophyta Phaeophyta Chlorophyta

 INTRODUCTION: In this chapter Algae Rhodophyta Phaeophyta Chlorophyta will discuss in detail. Thallophyta comprises undifferentiated plants. Only algae include in the Thallophyta division. Accessory spores are responsible for asexual reproduction.

Characteristic Features:

• Algae are found in fresh water and marine. Few algae also occur on trees, moist soil, etc.
• It having an undifferentiated body it can be colonial, parenchymatous, or unicellular.
• Vascular tissues are not present.
• Mostly found in aquatic algae do not require water conduction.
• Mechanical tissue is not present.
• Photosynthetic is the mode of nutrition.
• Algae having chlorophyll, xanthophyll, and carotene.
• Isogamy, anisogamy, and oogamy for sexual reproduction.
• Mitospores and meiospores are responsible for asexual reproduction.
• Haplontic, diplontic and diplohaplontic are life cycle of algae.

Image 1: Algae

Rhodophyta:  Red Algae

• Mostly they are marine and autotrophic.
• The plant may be unicellular, parenchymatous, Filamentous.
• Cell wall contains Pectic compounds, Cellulose and Phycocolloids.
• Chlorophyll, Phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin, and Carotenoid photosynthetic pigments are present.
• Calcium carbonate is present all over the walls.
• Chromatophores are present.
• Due to the presence of phycoerythrin algae show red in color.
• Floridian Starch is a food reserve.
• Carpospores, neutral spores, tetraspores take place in asexual reproduction.
• Antheridium is the male sex organ and Carposporophyte is the female sex organ.
• Haploid and diploid is an alternation of generation.

Image 2: Red Algae

Example of Red Algae:

• Polysiphonia: It is a marine alga. Long and Dwarf branches contain a plant. A plant is fixed by Rhizoid and Holdfast. The male sex organ is Antheridia and Carpogonia is the female sex organ. Carposporophyte is developed after fertilization. Carpospore is produced tetrasporophyte.
• Porphyra: It is a marine alga. Neutral spores help in asexual reproduction. The diploid Zygote is formed by sexual reproduction. 
• Gelidium: Attached by a number of rhizoids. It is used in Agar formation.
• Batrachospermum: It is also known as a Frogspawn alga. Monospores help in asexual reproduction. Spermatangia is a male sex organ and Carpogonia is a female sex organ.

Economic Importance of Red Algae:

• Porphyra, Chondrus, etc. algae used as food.
• Agar is used as culture media.
• Carrageenin is used in toothpaste, leather finishing.
• Gloiopeltis used in textiles and paper.
• Corallina helps cure infections.
• Polysiphonia shows anti-bacterial activities.

 Phaeophyta: Brown Algae

• It is Marine algae and is found in colder seas.
• Unicellular forms are not present.
• A plant body is divided into holdfast, stipe, and frond.
• Air vesicles are present and provide buoyancy.
• Cell walls having saccharides, cellulose, and phycocolloids.
• Photosynthetic pigments are Chlorophyll, Fucoxanthin, and Phycocolloid.
• Photosynthetic organelles are present.
• Carbohydrates and lipids are food reserve materials.
• Motile and Nonmotile spores help in Asexual reproduction.
• Isogamy, oogamy, and anisogamy help in sexual reproduction.
• Conduction of food materials by conducting tubes.

Image 3: Brown Algae

Examples of Brown Algae:

• Dictyota: They develop in shallow water. Hairs are present on the surface of the frond. The diploid zygote is formed by fertilization.
• Sargassum: It is used as fodder and manure. Floating and attached forms are found. It shows antimicrobial activities. Holdfast, main axis, and lateral are the parts of a plant. Air bladders are present.
• Fucus: It is the source of fodder and manure. Pneumocysts and conceptacles are present.
• Laminaria: It is large size alga about 1-3 meters. It is used as food, manure, and iodine.
• Ectocarpus: It is a marine alga. Prostate portion and rhizoids help in plant fixation.

Image 4: Life Cycle of Ectocarpus

Economic Importance of Brown Algae: 

• Laminaria, Sargassum, Macrocystis, etc. are used as edible algae.
• Iodine is present in Fucus and Laminaria.
• Potash is found in Macrocystis and Nereocystis.
• Laminaria show antibiotic activities.
• Durvillea show vermifuge properties.

See also: Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes

Biological Classification

Protista Protozoan Plasmodium

Chlorophyta: Green Algae

• It is a group of Eukaryotes.
• Mostly found in freshwater.
• They Found or moist soil, trees, and walls.
• The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
• They are unicellular.
• Chloroplast is present.
• Chlorophyll, Carotenoid, and Xanthophylls are photosynthetic pigments.
• Due to the presence of chlorophyll algae show green color.
• Mitospores and meiospores help in asexual reproduction.
• Isogamy, anisogamy, and oogamy help in sexual reproduction.
• The life cycle occurs as Haplontic, diplontic and diplohaplontic.

Image 5: Green Algae

Examples of Green Algae:

1. Chlamydomonas:

• It is a Eukaryotic and biflagellate alga.
• It is found in fresh water and marine.
• The cell wall is made up of Glycoprotein.
• For osmoregulation, contractile vacuoles are present.
• Alga contains a nucleus.
• Zoospores, hypnospores and aplanospores help in asexual reproduction.
• Flagellate spores are in zoospores.
• Hypnospores having thick-walled and Aplanospores having thinly walled.
• Zygotic meiosis forms four haploid zoospores.

2. Ulothrix:

• It is an unbranched.
• Central vacuoles are present.
• Chloroplast is present.
• Fragmentation help in vegetative reproduction.
• Zoospores, hypnospores, aplanospores help in asexual reproduction.
• Biflagellate and tetraflagellate zoospores are motile.
• Hypnospores having thick-walled and aplanospores having thin-walled spores.
• Isogamous helps in sexual reproduction.
• The formation of a zygote is indirect.

3. Spirogyra:

• It is unbranched.
• It is found in freshwater.
• Cells are green.
• Cells capable of division.
• A single nucleus is present.
• Fragmentation help in vegetative reproduction.
• Conjugation help in sexual reproduction.
• Conjugation occurs by scalariform and lateral.
• The formation of the zygote is direct.

4. Chara:

• It is found in freshwater.
• The male sex organ is antheridium and the female sex organ is oogonium.
• Fragmentation help in vegetative reproduction.
• It is used as food for several livings.
• It is used as manure.

5. Volvox:

• It is found in freshwater.
• It contains approx. 500 to 60,000 cells.
• The posterior region cells are large.
• During the swimming, it performs rotation.
• Formation of daughter colonies by asexual reproduction.
• Oogamous help in sexual reproduction.

Economic Importance of Green Algae:

• Ulva, Chlorella, Caulerpa contains minerals, lipids, and vitamin used as a food.
• Caulerpa and Chlorella are used as Antibiotics.

Conclusion: Algae are classified under the plant kingdom and characterized without embryo stage. Algae differentiated the basis of pigments and product storage.

This is the full article on Algae Rhodophyta Phaeophyta Chlorophyta.

 

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Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes

Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes

INTRODUCTION: In this chapter, Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes we will discuss in detail. Fungi is Non-vascular, achlorophyllous, spore-forming.

• Fungi is cosmopolitan.
• Present in water, air, and living organisms.
• Fungi contain chitin.
• Its food reserve is Glycogen.
• Mycology: Study of fungi.
• The mode of nutrition is Heterotrophs.
• Chlorophyll is absent hence not able to prepare their food.
• Saprotrophic fungi obtain food from dead and waste material.

Image 1: Fungi

Fungal Structure: 

• The Body having tubular filaments i.e., Hyphae.
• The filamentous hyphae or mass of hyphae is known as mycelium.
• In yeast mycelium is absent.
• Fungi have vegetative and reproductive phases.

Image 2: Formation of Mycelium

See Also: Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids

Protista Protozoan Plasmodium

Tissue and Cell Structure:  

• When hyphae are held together called Plectenchyma it contains Prosenchyma ( loosely hyphae),  and Pseudoparenchyma ( closely packed hyphae).
• When single nuclei are present condition is monokaryotic.
• When two nuclei are present condition is dikaryotic.
• Chitin is made up of acetyl glucosamine.
• Plastids are absent.
• Mitochondria, Endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, microtubules, etc. are present.
• Food reserve is glycogen and oil.

Image 3: Rhizopus

Reproduction: 

1. Sexual reproduction: Involves Karyogamy, plasmogamy, and meiosis.

• Homothallic: when mating occurs between the genetically are similar.
• Heterothallic: when mating occurs between two genetically are different.
• Union of cytoplasm i.e., Plasmogamy, and union of Nuclei i.e., Karyogamy.
• The stage between plasmogamy and karyogamy contains two nuclei (dikaryon).
• Sexual reproduction methods: Plano gametic Copulation: Heterogamous fusion can be Oogamy and anisogamy.
• Gametangial Contact: Male gamete antheridia transfer to female gamete oogonia by fertilization tube.
• Gametangial Copulation: Formation of zygospore.
• Spermatogamy: Male cell carried to the receptive region of the female sex organ.
• Somatogamy: Reproduction occurs by the fusion of two hyphae.

Image 4: Sexual Reproduction in Fungi

2. Vegetative Reproduction:

• Budding: Bud is arising on the parent body. Budding occurs in yeast and many other fungi.
• Fragmentation: By mechanical reason or much other reason parent body breaks up into two or several segments and form a complete organism. Fragmentation occurs in Rhizopus.
• Fission: Yeast divide two or more daughters identical to the parent.

Image 5: Vegetative Reproduction in fungi

3. Asexual Reproduction: 

• Occurs by the formation of spores. They can be motile or non-motile. Sexually produced spores are ascospores, basidiospores and others are asexually produced spores.
• Zoospores: Spores are naked and motile. Flagella help in swimming. Examples: Phytophthora, Albugo, etc.
• Sporangiospores: They are non-flagellate and dispersed by air. Examples: Mucor, Rhizopus, etc.
• Conidia: Spores are non-motile and develop by special hyphae. Example: Penicillium, Aspergillus, etc.
• Chlamydospores: Spores are thick-walled and develop by the accumulation of protoplasm.
• Basidiospores: They are non-motile and develop from basidium.
• Oidia: Produce during excess water and particular salts. Example: Rhizopus etc.
• Ascospores: Spores are non-motile and produce inside asci.

Image 6: Fungal Spores

Fungus Classification:

Image 7: Kingdom Fungi

PHYCOMYCETES: 

• Sexual and Asexual reproduction occurs.
• Phycomycetes divide into two groups i.e., oomycetes and zygomycetes.

1. Oomycetes: Mycelium is multinucleate and aseptate.

• Spore formation occurs by asexual reproduction.
• Biflagellate zoospores, non-flagellate gametes, and smooth flagella are present.
•  Antheridium passes into oogonium by a fertilization tube.
• Examples: the late blight of potato caused by➡ Phytophthora infestans.

2. Zygomycetes: Mycelium is multinucleate and aseptate.

• Mostly saprotrophic, zoospores are absent.
• Non motile Mitospores are present.
• Gametangial copulation for the sexual reproduction.
• Gametes are multinucleate.
• Examples: Soft rot of Apple, strawberry is due to Rhizopus.

Image 8: Zygomycetes

Rhizopus:

• Rhizopus is a black bread mold.
• It is saprotrophic.
• Hyphae are rhizoidal, sporangiophores, stoloniferous, and zygophores.
• Rhizoidal hyphae are branched, sporangiophores are unbranched, stoloniferous are unbranched and zygophores are subaerial.
• Fragmentation for vegetative reproduction.
• Asexual reproduction by sporangiospores, chlamydospores, and oidia.
• Sporangiospores: Sporangiophore develops ➡ sporangium.
• chlamydospores: chlamydospores rise ➡ new mycelium.
• Oidia: They multiply by➡ budding.
• Sexual reproduction: Rhizopus stolonifer is heterothallic. Trisporic acids help in the formation of zygophores. Two gametangia are dissolves and two coenogametes form diploid zygote and zygospore. Germ sporangium develops germ spores.

ASCOMYCETES:

• They are pigmented moulds.
• Septate hyphae are present.
• Cell wall having chitin.
• Budding and fission for asexual reproduction.
• Conidiophores can be branched or unbranched.
• Sexual reproduction by sex cells, gametangial between antheridium and ascogonium.
• Plasmogamy and karyogamy for fertilization.
• Ascospores produce an ascus. The asci form ascocarps. 

Yeast: 

• They are nonmycelial or pseudomycelial.
• Mode of asexual reproduction in yeasts: Fission yeasts, budding yeasts, and halobial yeasts.
• Ascus formation is known in yeasts.
• Yeasts are unicellular and form temporary chains during rapid growth.
• It contains chitin and mannan β glucan.
• The mode of nutrition is saprotrophic.
• Budding and fission occur in asexual reproduction.

Image 9: Life cycle of Yeast

Economic importance of Yeast:

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in baking food.
• Saccharomyces ellipsoidens are used in the brewing industry.
• Yeast is also used in vitaminized food.
• Some yeast is used in the silk industry.

Aspergillus:

• It contaminates bread, jellies, cheese, and laboratory cultures.
• It is rotting the cigars, figs, and many fruits.
• It also causes ear infections.

Penicillium:

• It is commercial antibiotics.
• It spoils citrus food, paper, apple, and other products.
• It helps in the formation of organic acids.

BASIDIOMYCETES:

• It is club fungi.
• Motile cells are not present.
• Primary and Secondary mycelia are present.
• Sex organs do not involve during sexual reproduction.
• Primary mycelium and Secondary mycelium are monokaryotic, dikaryotic respectively.
• Basidium can be septate or aseptate.
• A basidium produces four basidiospores.

Image 10: Basidiomycetes

Mushroom:

• Agaricus campestris is edible.
• The mode of nutrition is saprotrophic.
• Primary mycelium and Secondary mycelium are present but secondary is long-lived.
• Clamp connections show by secondary mycelium.
• Secondary mycelium gives rise mass of hyphae during favorable conditions.
• Stipe is fleshy and its base is swollen.
• Pilus is circular, looking like an umbrella.
• Basidiocarp produces several spores.

Toadstools:

• They are non-edible.
• Toadstools contain poison.
• Having white spores.
• Example: Amanita muscaria etc.

Smuts:

• They produce black spores known as smut spores.
• Spores are exposed in loose smut and spores are not exposed in covered smut.

DEUTEROMYCETES:

• The sexual stage is not known in this class.
• They are unicellular.
• Conidia help for asexual reproduction.
• Examples: Trichoderma, Early blight, Wilts, Arthrobotrys, Red rot, Tikka disease, etc.

Tikka Disease:

• Black and brown spots occur in groundnut leaves.
• Filamentous and septate conidia are present.

Red Rot:

• Midribs of leaf and canes effects by Colletotrichum falcatum, cause red rot in sugarcane.
• It decreases the juice content.

Wilts:

• Banana, Potato, Cotton wilts by Fusarium.
• Chlamydospores, macroconidia, and microconidia spores show by Fusarium oxysporum.

Early Blight:

• Causes occur in Potato and Tomato.
• Causal organism is Alternaria solani.
• Brown spots develop in the leaf.
• Branch and leaf are falls.

Lichens:

• It is the association of fungus and alga.
• The algal partner is a cyanobacterium.
• Lichen grows in alpines, tree bark, roofs, etc.
• Lichen's colors have green, orange, greyish, black, or brown.
• Alga performs photosynthesis activity.
• The fungus has minerals and water that are used by alga for the preparation of food. 

Image 11: Lichens

Importance of Lichens:

• They are used in dyes.
• Ramalina is used in Perfumes.
• Lichen use as colonisers.
• Usnea and Cladonia are used for medicinal purposes.

Mycorrhizae:

• Mutual beneficial of fungus and Root of higher plants.
• Absence of Root hairs and Root cap in these plants.
• Ecto mycorrhizae lie on the Root surface in bulk.
• Endo mycorrhizae lie on the Root surface in little.

Image 12: Mycorrhizae of Pinus

Conclusion:  It is cosmopolitan found in air, water, and soil. Fungi contain fungal cellulose and the food reserve as glycogen.

 This article contains Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes with images for better understanding

See Also: Diversity Living World

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Protista Protozoan Plasmodium

Protista Protozoan Plasmodium 

 INTRODUCTION: In this chapter, Protista Protozoan Plasmodium will discuss in detail. Protozoans were firstly studied by Leeuwenhoek in 1677.

Characteristics features of Protozoan Protists:

• Habitat can be freshwater or marine.
• They are small, acellular, and calcareous.
• Pseudopodia, flagella, and cilia are Locomotory organs.
• Osmoregulation occurs by contractile vacuoles.
• Having radial or bilateral symmetry.
• The mode of nutrition is Holozoic.
• Reproduction occurs asexual or sexual.
• During adverse conditions, they form cysts for survival.
• Ammonia is a metabolic waste.

Classification of Protozoan Protists on basis of Locomotory organelles:

Mastigophora, Sarcodina, Sporozoa, and Ciliata

1. Group: Mastigophora: (Zooflagellate)

• The outer covering is a pellicle.
• Asexual reproduction occurs by Binary fission.
• The locomotory organ is the flagella.
• Association is commensals or symbionts.
• E.g. Trypanosoma gambiense, Leishmania donovani, Giardia intestinalis, etc.

Trypanosoma gambiense: 

• Sleeping sickness parasite.
• Transmit by blood-sucking Glossina palpalis.
• It is present in blood plasma in humans.
• It makes the unconscious.

Leishmania donovani:

• Cause black sickness.
• Also occurs anemia, effects on liver and spleen.
• Transmit by Phlebotomus argentipes.
• It is common in India and America.

Image 1: Zooflagellates

Trichomonas vaginalis: 

• Effects the women's vagina.
• It causes leucorrhoea disease.

Giardia intestinalis:

• Transmission occurs by food and water.
• It affects the part of the small intestine.
• It also causes diarrhea, head pain, epigastric pain, increases body temperature, etc.

2. Group: Sarcodina: (Rhizopoda)

• Locomotion by the Pseudopodia.
• Found in fresh and seawater.
• Nutrition is holozoic.
• Asexual and sexual reproduction takes place.
• E.g. Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica, Globigerina etc.

Image 2: Amoeba

SEE ALSO: Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids

Amoeba proteus: 

• Locomotion occurs by Lobo podia.
• Osmoregulation occurs by the contractile vacuole.
• Holozoic is the mode of nutrition.
• Contractile vacuole works faster in distilled water.
• Having Mitochondria.

Entamoeba histolytica: 

• The life cycle is monogenetic.
• The disease is known as amoebiasis.
• Contractile vacuole is not present.
• It affects the large intestine and forms ulcers.
• Abdominal pain was also reported.
• It has two forms i.e., Magna and minuta 
• Effective medicine to kill this causal organism is Metragyl or Flagyl.

The life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica

Radiolarians:

• Mostly found in marine.
• For locomotion pseudopodia are present.
• Protoplasm is differentiated.
• Reproduction occurs by binary fission.
• Examples: Acanthometra and Collozoum.

Foraminiferans:

• Found in fresh and marine water.
• For creeping and ingestion pseudopodia are present.
• Reproduction occurs through binary and multiple fission.
• Examples: Globigerina and Elphidium.

Heliozoans:

• Contains axopodia.
• Scales and spines having on the skeleton.
• Example: Actinophrys etc.

3. Group: Sporozoa:

• They are endoparasite.
• Locomotory organelles are not present.
• Contractile vacuoles is not present.
• Sexual reproduction by syngamy.
• The Mode of Nutrition is Parasitic.
• E.g. Plasmodium, Monocystis, Eimeria, etc.

Plasmodium (The Malarial Parasite):

a) Human beings: Inhuman, malarial parasites reproduce asexually.

b) Female Anopheles Mosquito: Malarial parasites reproduce sexually.

A) Life cycle of Plasmodium in Human: Infection occurs by Sporozoite.

• Pre-erythrocytic Schizogony: When sporozoite becomes rounded known as schizont. 

 Schizont → multiply and → form Crypto zoites → moves into sinusoids (in the liver).

• Exo-erythrocytic Schizogony: Crypto zoites → Form Meta cryptozoites.

• Erythrocytic Schizogony: Schizogony in the RBC is known as Erythrocytic Schizogony.

Metacryptozoite → enters RBCs, it follows many steps:

1. Young Trophozoite: When Metacryptozoite moves into RBCs they become round and this stage is known as Young Trophozoite.
2. Amoeboid Stage: When Vacuole is disappeared and these Trophozoites change the shape i.e., amoeba-shaped. Trophozoites acquire hemozoin granules they derived from Erythrocytes. Haemoglobin having protein and iron parts.
3. Formation of Merozoites: Trophozoite perform mitotic division and form merozoites. RBC releases merozoites in human blood and appears symptoms of fever known as the Incubation period. Symptoms of Malaria: Fever, chilliness, headache, muscular pain, etc.
4. Formation of Gametocytes: Some Merozoites form gametocytes, these form Smaller gametocytes and Larger gametocytes.

B) Life Cycle of in the Female Anopheles Mosquito:

• Female Anopheles suck the blood from infected human and gametocytes comes into the lumen of mosquito.
• The formation of gametes is known as Gametogony.
• Formation of Zygote i.e., Fertilization.
• The encyst zygote known as Sporont.
• The nucleus of the oocyte divides and forms small haploid nuclei.

The life cycle of Malarial Parasite

Control of Malaria:

1. Elimination of Mosquitoes: Mosquitoes killed by D.D.T, Flit, etc.
2. Destruction of larvae.
3. Breeding grounds of larva should be drained.

Treatment of Malaria: Antimalarial drug-like Quinine, paludrine, Comoprima, etc.

4. Group: Ciliate: 

• Develop the number of cilia during the life cycle.
• A pellicle is the outer covering of ciliate protozoans.
• They live in fresh and marine water.
• Locomotory organs are cilia.
• The contractile vacuole is present for osmoregulation.
• The mode of nutrition is Holozoic.
• Asexual and sexual reproduction takes place.
• Examples: Paramecium, Balantidium, Vorticella, etc.

Paramecium caudatum:

• Found in freshwater.
• It is a surface feeder.
• The mode of nutrition is microphageal.
• The shape is like a Slipper.
• Outer covering pellicle maintains the shape of the body.
• It having macronucleus and micronucleus.
• It having a contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
• Transverse binary fission method for asexual reproduction.
• Conjugation and autogamy method for sexual reproduction.

Two types of paramecia:

1. Sensitive Paramecia: Having no kappa particles and do not produce poisonous substances.
2. Killer Paramecia: Having kappa particles and secretes paramecin.

Balantidium coli:

• Found in the large intestine of humans.
• Causes diseases like diarrhea, ulceration, etc.
• Transmission through contaminated water and food.

S.NO.	Parasite	Distribution	Habitat	Disease cause	Transmission
1	Trypanosoma gambiense	Central Africa	Blood, cerebrospinal fluid	Gambium sleeping sickness	By Glossina palpalis
2	Trypanosoma cruzi	South America	Blood	Chagas disease	By Faeces of bugs (triatomid)
3	Leishmania donovani	India	Lymph glands, Liver, Spleen	Kala-azar	By bites of Phlebotomus argentipes
4	Giardia intestinalis	World-wide	Small intestine	Diarrhea	By food and water
5	Trichomonas vaginalis	World-wide	Vagina	Leucorrhoea	Sexual intercourse
6	Entamoeba histolytica	World-wide	Large intestine	Amoebic dysentery	By food and drink
7	Leishmania brasiliensis	Asia and Africa	Nose, Mouth, Pharynx	Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis	By sandfly

             Table 1: Pathogenic Protozoans in Human being

SEE ALSO: Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes

Conclusion: Protozoans in parasitic form affect humans and animals. In this chapter, Protista Protozoan Plasmodium above the information is completed in detail with images.

                                                                                                         

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