Protista Protozoan Plasmodium

Protista Protozoan Plasmodium 

 INTRODUCTION: In this chapter, Protista Protozoan Plasmodium will discuss in detail. Protozoans were firstly studied by Leeuwenhoek in 1677.

Characteristics features of Protozoan Protists:

• Habitat can be freshwater or marine.
• They are small, acellular, and calcareous.
• Pseudopodia, flagella, and cilia are Locomotory organs.
• Osmoregulation occurs by contractile vacuoles.
• Having radial or bilateral symmetry.
• The mode of nutrition is Holozoic.
• Reproduction occurs asexual or sexual.
• During adverse conditions, they form cysts for survival.
• Ammonia is a metabolic waste.

Classification of Protozoan Protists on basis of Locomotory organelles:

Mastigophora, Sarcodina, Sporozoa, and Ciliata

1. Group: Mastigophora: (Zooflagellate)

• The outer covering is a pellicle.
• Asexual reproduction occurs by Binary fission.
• The locomotory organ is the flagella.
• Association is commensals or symbionts.
• E.g. Trypanosoma gambiense, Leishmania donovani, Giardia intestinalis, etc.

Trypanosoma gambiense: 

• Sleeping sickness parasite.
• Transmit by blood-sucking Glossina palpalis.
• It is present in blood plasma in humans.
• It makes the unconscious.

Leishmania donovani:

• Cause black sickness.
• Also occurs anemia, effects on liver and spleen.
• Transmit by Phlebotomus argentipes.
• It is common in India and America.

Image 1: Zooflagellates

Trichomonas vaginalis: 

• Effects the women's vagina.
• It causes leucorrhoea disease.

Giardia intestinalis:

• Transmission occurs by food and water.
• It affects the part of the small intestine.
• It also causes diarrhea, head pain, epigastric pain, increases body temperature, etc.

2. Group: Sarcodina: (Rhizopoda)

• Locomotion by the Pseudopodia.
• Found in fresh and seawater.
• Nutrition is holozoic.
• Asexual and sexual reproduction takes place.
• E.g. Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica, Globigerina etc.

Image 2: Amoeba

SEE ALSO: Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids

Amoeba proteus: 

• Locomotion occurs by Lobo podia.
• Osmoregulation occurs by the contractile vacuole.
• Holozoic is the mode of nutrition.
• Contractile vacuole works faster in distilled water.
• Having Mitochondria.

Entamoeba histolytica: 

• The life cycle is monogenetic.
• The disease is known as amoebiasis.
• Contractile vacuole is not present.
• It affects the large intestine and forms ulcers.
• Abdominal pain was also reported.
• It has two forms i.e., Magna and minuta 
• Effective medicine to kill this causal organism is Metragyl or Flagyl.

The life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica

Radiolarians:

• Mostly found in marine.
• For locomotion pseudopodia are present.
• Protoplasm is differentiated.
• Reproduction occurs by binary fission.
• Examples: Acanthometra and Collozoum.

Foraminiferans:

• Found in fresh and marine water.
• For creeping and ingestion pseudopodia are present.
• Reproduction occurs through binary and multiple fission.
• Examples: Globigerina and Elphidium.

Heliozoans:

• Contains axopodia.
• Scales and spines having on the skeleton.
• Example: Actinophrys etc.

3. Group: Sporozoa:

• They are endoparasite.
• Locomotory organelles are not present.
• Contractile vacuoles is not present.
• Sexual reproduction by syngamy.
• The Mode of Nutrition is Parasitic.
• E.g. Plasmodium, Monocystis, Eimeria, etc.

Plasmodium (The Malarial Parasite):

a) Human beings: Inhuman, malarial parasites reproduce asexually.

b) Female Anopheles Mosquito: Malarial parasites reproduce sexually.

A) Life cycle of Plasmodium in Human: Infection occurs by Sporozoite.

• Pre-erythrocytic Schizogony: When sporozoite becomes rounded known as schizont. 

 Schizont → multiply and → form Crypto zoites → moves into sinusoids (in the liver).

• Exo-erythrocytic Schizogony: Crypto zoites → Form Meta cryptozoites.

• Erythrocytic Schizogony: Schizogony in the RBC is known as Erythrocytic Schizogony.

Metacryptozoite → enters RBCs, it follows many steps:

1. Young Trophozoite: When Metacryptozoite moves into RBCs they become round and this stage is known as Young Trophozoite.
2. Amoeboid Stage: When Vacuole is disappeared and these Trophozoites change the shape i.e., amoeba-shaped. Trophozoites acquire hemozoin granules they derived from Erythrocytes. Haemoglobin having protein and iron parts.
3. Formation of Merozoites: Trophozoite perform mitotic division and form merozoites. RBC releases merozoites in human blood and appears symptoms of fever known as the Incubation period. Symptoms of Malaria: Fever, chilliness, headache, muscular pain, etc.
4. Formation of Gametocytes: Some Merozoites form gametocytes, these form Smaller gametocytes and Larger gametocytes.

B) Life Cycle of in the Female Anopheles Mosquito:

• Female Anopheles suck the blood from infected human and gametocytes comes into the lumen of mosquito.
• The formation of gametes is known as Gametogony.
• Formation of Zygote i.e., Fertilization.
• The encyst zygote known as Sporont.
• The nucleus of the oocyte divides and forms small haploid nuclei.

The life cycle of Malarial Parasite

Control of Malaria:

1. Elimination of Mosquitoes: Mosquitoes killed by D.D.T, Flit, etc.
2. Destruction of larvae.
3. Breeding grounds of larva should be drained.

Treatment of Malaria: Antimalarial drug-like Quinine, paludrine, Comoprima, etc.

4. Group: Ciliate: 

• Develop the number of cilia during the life cycle.
• A pellicle is the outer covering of ciliate protozoans.
• They live in fresh and marine water.
• Locomotory organs are cilia.
• The contractile vacuole is present for osmoregulation.
• The mode of nutrition is Holozoic.
• Asexual and sexual reproduction takes place.
• Examples: Paramecium, Balantidium, Vorticella, etc.

Paramecium caudatum:

• Found in freshwater.
• It is a surface feeder.
• The mode of nutrition is microphageal.
• The shape is like a Slipper.
• Outer covering pellicle maintains the shape of the body.
• It having macronucleus and micronucleus.
• It having a contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
• Transverse binary fission method for asexual reproduction.
• Conjugation and autogamy method for sexual reproduction.

Two types of paramecia:

1. Sensitive Paramecia: Having no kappa particles and do not produce poisonous substances.
2. Killer Paramecia: Having kappa particles and secretes paramecin.

Balantidium coli:

• Found in the large intestine of humans.
• Causes diseases like diarrhea, ulceration, etc.
• Transmission through contaminated water and food.

S.NO.	Parasite	Distribution	Habitat	Disease cause	Transmission
1	Trypanosoma gambiense	Central Africa	Blood, cerebrospinal fluid	Gambium sleeping sickness	By Glossina palpalis
2	Trypanosoma cruzi	South America	Blood	Chagas disease	By Faeces of bugs (triatomid)
3	Leishmania donovani	India	Lymph glands, Liver, Spleen	Kala-azar	By bites of Phlebotomus argentipes
4	Giardia intestinalis	World-wide	Small intestine	Diarrhea	By food and water
5	Trichomonas vaginalis	World-wide	Vagina	Leucorrhoea	Sexual intercourse
6	Entamoeba histolytica	World-wide	Large intestine	Amoebic dysentery	By food and drink
7	Leishmania brasiliensis	Asia and Africa	Nose, Mouth, Pharynx	Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis	By sandfly

             Table 1: Pathogenic Protozoans in Human being

SEE ALSO: Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes

Conclusion: Protozoans in parasitic form affect humans and animals. In this chapter, Protista Protozoan Plasmodium above the information is completed in detail with images.

                                                                                                         

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Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids

Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids

Introduction: In this chapter, Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids we will discuss in detail. Kingdom Protista Proposed by Ernest Haeckel. Protists are ancestors of eukaryotic organisms. They are mostly found in the form of Plankton.

• Microscopic organisms and live in aquatic.
• Also lives in the body of animals as parasites.

Structure of Protist:

• Eukaryotic, having plasmalemma, pellicle, contains mitochondria, 80S ribosomes, Golgi complex, centrioles, chloroplast, cilia and flagella, nucleus, nucleolus, etc.

Image 1: Euglena

Locomotion of Protists:

• Isochronic and Metachronic coordination help in ciliary locomotion. e.g. Paramecium.
• Protists have pseudopodia which helps in locomotion. Lobo podia present in Amoeba, Filopodia present in Euglypha, Axopodia present in Actinophrys, and Reticulopodia present in Globigerina.
• Wave-like contraction is found in sporozoans, euglenoids, etc.

Nutrition of Protists:

• Prepare their food from photosynthetic activity.
• Amoeba ingests the food.
• Slime moulds absorb the food by saprotrophic.
• Plasmodium obtains its food from other organisms as a parasite.
• Trichonympha and Lophomonas act as symbionts and prepare the food.

Reproduction in Protists: Reproduce as sexual and asexual methods.

a) Sexual reproduction: By meiosis and fertilization.

1) Syngamy: formation of diploid zygotes.

• Isogamy: fusion of similar gametes e.g. Monocystis
• Anisogamy: when different gametes are fuse e.g. Ceratium
• Oogamy: When non-motile and motile is fuse e.g. Plasmodium

Life cycle showing gametic meiosis

2) Conjugation: When two individuals exchange their haploid pronuclei. e.g. Paramecium

b) Asexual reproduction: When young ones produce involvement of the single parent.

• Binary fission: Division of parent body into two daughter cells, e.g. Amoeba, Euglena, etc.
• Multiple fission: Division of parent body into many individuals, e.g. Amoeba and plasmodium
• Budding: when new outgrowth is developed on the parent, e.g. Arcella 

SEE ALSO: Biological Classification

Protista Protozoan Plasmodium

A) PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROTISTS:

1) Dinoflagellates:

• Some live in fresh water and marine.
• Gonyaulax causes red tide in the sea.
• Noctiluca, Gonyaulax, etc. show bioluminescence.
• The mode of nutrition is photosynthetic.
• Example: Triceratium, Cymbella, Navicula, etc.

Structure of Dinoflagellates:

• Found in Yellow, blue, brown, and red colors.
• Unicellular motile and biflagellate.
• A rigid coat is a theca and it contains two grooves i.e. Sulcus and annulus.
• A transverse flagellum and other is longitudinal.
• Contains large size nucleus, plastids, mucilage bodies, eyespots, and trichocysts.

Image 2: Gonyaulax

Reproduction in Dinoflagellates:

• Isogamous and isogamous sexual reproduction occur in some dinoflagellates.
• Asexual reproduction occurs by cell division.

Examples of Dinoflagellates:

• Ceratium: found in fresh water and marine and a large number of chromatophores are present.
• Noctiluca: Found in temperate and tropical areas, Shows bioluminescence and long tentacle work as flagellum.
• Gonyaulax catenella: It produces toxins and kills other aquatic organisms.

2) CHRYSOPHYTES: Diatoms

• Mostly aquatic, free-floating, show gliding by mucilage.

Structure of Diatoms:

• The outer siliceous shell is Frustule and made of epitheca and hypotheca.
• They are microscopic, colored, and do not possess flagella.
• Symmetry is pennate and centric.
• Central vacuole, large nucleus, chloroplast, etc. present.
• Fucoxanthin provides a brown color.

Image 3: Diatoms

Reproduction in Diatoms:

• Fertilization form a zygote by sexual reproduction.
• Multiply by binary fission.

Importance of Diatoms:

• Diatomite is used in the filtration of alcohols, syrups, and sugar.
• Diatomite is used in paints for the increment of visibility in darkness.
• Diatomite is used in toothpaste.
• Diatomite is used in metal polishes.
• Diatoms help in pollution indicators.
• Diatomite use as an industrial catalyst.

3) EUGLENOIDS: Characteristics of Euglenoids:

• They are unicellular flagellates.
• Found in freshwater.
• Movement is the contraction of the body.
• The mode of nutrition is photoautotrophic and saprobic.

Structure of Euglenoids:

• The outermost covering is the pellicle which contains elastic protein, lipids, and carbohydrates.
• Euglenoids have one short and one long flagellum.
• The contractile vacuole is present.
• Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b are photosynthetic pigments.
• A large nucleus is present.

Reproduction: Euglenoids multiply by longitudinal binary fission during favorable conditions.

EUGLENA: Found in freshwater bodies and freely solitary. Unicellular flagellate. Chloroplasts are many in numbers. Photoreceptors are present. Osmoregulation occurs in the vacuole.

B) CONSUMER-DECOMPOSER PROTISTS (Slime moulds)

Characteristics of Slime moulds:

• Known as Fungus-animals.
• Contains a plasma membrane.
• The mode of nutrition is phagotrophic.
• Chlorophyll is absent.
• Reproduction is sexual and asexual.

Acellular Slime moulds: (plasmodial slime moulds)

• Found on dead and decaying vegetation.
• The freely thalloid body is the plasmodium.
• Have several branches called veins.
• Structure act for perennation.
• The life cycle occurs in Sporangia, spores, germination and sexual reproduction, and the Formation of plasmodium.

Cellular Slime moulds: (Acrasiomycetes)

• Found in humus containing damp.
• They are uninucleate and amoeba-like cells.
• Phagotrophic in nutrition.
• Life cycle occurs Pseudo plasmodium, sporangium, spores, and sexual reproduction.

The life cycle of cellular Slime mould

Conclusion: Kingdom Protista is divided into Photosynthetic, Consumer-Decomposer, and Protozoan Protists. Hence Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids are discussed here and the rest part will discuss in the next chapter.

In this chapter, Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids above the information is completed in detail with images.

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Monera Bacteria Archaebacteria Cyanobacteria

Monera Bacteria Archaebacteria Cyanobacteria

 INTRODUCTION: This Chapter Contains Monera Bacteria Archaebacteria Cyanobacteria. Monerans having Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. Eubacteria having Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.

BACTERIA: Bacteria were discovered by Leeuwenhoek in 1676.

• Peptidoglycan cell wall.
• Mucilage covering.
• Ribosomes are the 70s in nature.
• Membrane-covered cell organelles are absent.
• Nutrition is photoautotrophic, chemoautotrophic, saprotrophic.
• Flagella is present.

Image 1: Bacteria

Structure of Bacterial cell:

• Coccus-  Spherical shape
• Bacillus- Straight and cylindrical shape
• Spirillum- coiled like a corkscrew shape
• Vibrio- comma, curved rod, or single turn of spiral shape
• Stalked- stalk-like
• Budding- swollen

Flagellation: Describe on the basis of the presence or absence of flagella.

• Atrichous- Flagella absent
• Monotrichous- Single flagella occurs
• Amphitrichous- flagella is present on two ends
• Cephalotrichous- Group of flagella at one end
• Lophotrichous- Group of flagella at two ends
• Peritrichous- no. of flagella all over the surface

Gram-positive Bacteria	Gram-negative Bacteria
Retain blue and purple colored when washed with absolute alcohol.	Do not retain color when washed with absolute alcohol.
Outer the membrane is absent.	Present
Single layered wall.	Wall is two layered.
Lipid content in the wall is quite low.	20-30% lipid content is present in the wall.
Mucopeptide content is 70-80%.	It is 10-20%.
Porins are absent.	Present
Teichoic acids are present.	Absent

    Table 1: Gram +ve and -ve bacteria

See Also: Algae Rhodophyta Phaeophyta Chlorophyta

Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes

Components of Bacterial Cell:

1. Cell Envelope: It consists of 3 components- Glycocalyx, cell wall, and Plasma membrane

• Glycocalyx- Outermost mucilage layer, gives sticky character to cell, protects from phagocytes, protects from virus, etc.
• Cell wall- Rigid solid covering, having polysaccharide, L and D alanine, Lysine, etc. amino acids are present.
• Plasma membrane- It is Selectively permeable, formed by a phospholipid bilayer, it helps in the respiration process and formation of lipids.

2. Cytoplasm: semi-fluid ground substance, a large number of ribosomes are present, ribosome 70S in nature, mesosome present, it contain plasmids.

3. Nucleoid: consist of a single circular DNA and supercoiled with RNA, present freely in cytoplasm, it is the genetic material.

4. Plasmids: Self-replicating, gives unique phenotypic to bacteria, used as a vector in genetic engineering.

5. Inclusion Bodies: non-living structure, Gas vacuole in cyanobacteria which constitute buoyancy regulation mechanism, Inorganic inclusions occur in bacteria like sulphur granules, iron granules, etc., food reserve contains.

6. Flagella: Bacterial flagellum has 3 parts- basal body, hook, and filament.

7. Pili and Fimbriae: pili are longer and thick outgrowths whereas Fimbriae are short and narrow.

•  Plasmid: Extrachromosomal rings of DNA, plasmid carried non-vital genes.
•  Reproduction:  
• A)Vegetative reproduction- Bacterial DNA undergoes replication and during favorable conditions, cells expand and the cytoplasm divides.
• B)Sporulation: produce many spores. Endospore- highly thick-walled, endospore tolerate 100 °C and has no effect on toxic chemicals.
• C)Sexual reproduction: This take place by Genetic recombination by three methods: Transformation, Conjugation, and Transduction.

1)Conjugation: Bacteria have two types of cells, Male (F+) donor and Female (F-) recipient.

a) Sterile Male Method: (F+ × F- → F- becomes F+)

b) Fertile Male Method: (HFr × F- → F- remains F-)

2)Transformation: Taking of DNA  from the living surrounding medium.

3)Transduction: Transfer of gene-mediated by viruses.

• Respiration: The mode of respiration in bacteria can be aerobic and anaerobic.

a) Obligate aerobes- Respire aerobically

b) Facultative anaerobes- Respire aerobically but switch over when oxygen is low

c) Obligate anaerobes- Respire anaerobically

d) Facultative aerobes- Respire anaerobically but respire aerobically when oxygen is present

• Nutrition: The mode of nutrition is autotrophic and heterotrophic.

a) Photoautotrophic bacteria: Bacteriophyll and bacteriopheophytin pigments occur. 

b) Chemoautotrophic bacteria: Manufacture organic compounds from the inorganic raw material.

c) Saprophytic bacteria: Free-living bacteria take the food from the waste product of animals and plants.

d) Symbiotic bacteria: Mutually beneficial e.g., Rhizobium

e) Parasitic bacteria: Obtain food from others for survival.

• Antibiotics: These are produced by micro-organisms to destroy other living. Penicillin discovered by Fleming it is a commercial antibiotic. e.g., Streptomycin, chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, etc.

Image 2: Antibiotics

Economic Importance of Bacteria:

• The number of antibiotics is manufactured by the bacteria.
• Riboflavin vitamin prepared by the bacteria.
• Lactic acids are produced.
• Butyl and methyl alcohol are produced.
• Saprotrophic bacteria help information of manure.
• Azotobacter, Beijerinckia like bacteria help in nitrogen fixation.
• Ammonifying bacteria help information of Ammonia.
• Help in the dairy industry.

ARCHAEBACTERIA:

• Peptidoglycan is absent in the walls
• Protein and non-cellulosic polysaccharides contain.
• Methanogens: They are anaerobic, mode of nutrition is autotrophic, some live as symbionts.
• Halophiles: They are aerobic and chemoheterotrophs, contain mucilage covering, salt-rich.
• Thermoacidophiles: tolerate high temperature, having branch lipid chain.

CYANOBACTERIA:

• Blue-green algae possess photosynthetic activity.
• Chlorophyll a, carotenoid, phycobilins, etc. pigments are present.
• Morphology: unicellular, colonial, or filamentous. Flagella are absent, trichome is present.
• Cell structure: larger cells, peptidoglycan wall, membrane-bound organelles are absent.
• Thylakoids are freely present in the cytoplasm.
• Gas vacuoles are present.
• Thick-walled heterocyst which is impermeable to oxygen and heterocyst also perform nitrogen fixation.
• Multiply by the asexual method.

Conclusion: Monera kingdom is also called Procaryota. The morphological characteristics are very little. Monera also contains mycoplasma and actinomycetes.

This article covered Monera Bacteria Archaebacteria Cyanobacteria in detail.

 

See Also: Biological Classification

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Biological Classification

 Biological Classification

INTRODUCTION: In this chapter, Biological Classification we will discuss in detail. Arranging organisms into groups on the basis of affinities in the hierarchy.

• Help to know the relationship between the organisms of different groups.
• Arrange the species in the different categories on the basis of similarity or dissimilarity.
• Help in the identification of organisms.

Artificial System	Natural System
It employs one or two morphological traits.	It employs many morphological characters.
Do not employ characters biochemistry, cytology, genetics, etc of organisms.	Employs all these characters.
Do not provide information about natural relationships.	It Provides information on natural relationships.
This system uses habit or habitat for classification.	But this the system never uses habit or habitat for classification.

    Table 1: Differences between Artificial and Natural System of Classification

Taxonomy Branch	Information
Cytotaxonomy	Provide comparative cytological studies, number, structure, and behavior of chromosome
Chemotaxonomy	Provide information of various chemical constituents like alkaloids, crystals, betacyanin, proteins, amino acids, etc.
Numerical taxonomy	Provide largely number of statistical like numbers and codes
Cladistic taxonomy	Provide similarity due to common ancestor

    Table 2:  Major Branch of Taxonomy

*Biological Classification

S.NO.	Characters	Monera	Protista	Fungi	Plantae	Animalia
1	Cell type	Prokaryotic	Eukaryotic	Eukaryotic	Eukaryotic	Eukaryotic
2	Cell wall	Non- cellulosic	Present in some	Present (Non cellulosic)	Present(cellulose)	Absent
3	Chloroplast	Absent	Present in some	Absent	present	Absent
4	Mitochondria	Absent	Present	Present	Present	Present
5	Nuclear membrane	Absent	Present	Present	Present	Present
6	Motility	Bacterial flagella	Cilia, flagella amoeboid	Cilia, flagella in some	Cilia and Flagella in lower forms	Cilia and flagella
7	Mode of nutrition	Autotrophic chemo and photosynthetic	Photosynthetic and heterotrophic	Heterotrophic, saprophytic and parasitic	Autotrophic by photosynthesis	Heterotrophic by ingestion

       Table 3: Characteristics of Five Kingdom

See Also: Diversity Living World

 Whittaker proposed five kingdoms Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

1. Kingdom Monera: Mycoplasma, bacteria, actinomycetes, spirochaetes, rickettsiae, chlamydiae, and cyanobacteria.

•  They are basically unicellular.
• Nutrition - parasitic, photoautotrophic, symbiotic, etc.
• The cell wall is generally present.
• Genetic material is not organized.
• DNA is naked.
• Membrane-bound cell organelles are absent.
• Mitotic spindle and Gametes are absent. 
• A) Archaebacteria: Primitive group of bacteria.
• Groups of Archaebacteria: a) Methanogens b) Halophiles c) Thermoacidophiles
• B) Eubacteria: Typical prokaryotic
• a) Coccus bacteria: spherical, small and non-flagellated
• b) Bacillus: rod-shaped
• c) Vibrio: comma-shaped
• d) Spiral: coiled form 

Image 1: Bacteria

See Also: Monera Bacteria Archaebacteria Cyanobacteria

Protista Photosynthetic Dinoflagellates Euglenoids

Fungi Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes

2. Kingdom Protista: Flagellates, dinoflagellates, ciliates, diatoms, sporozoans, etc.

• Mostly aquatic organisms.
• Mode of nutrition- parasitic, photosynthetic, ingestive, etc.
• Genetic material is an organized form.
• The endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, Golgi bodies, etc. Occurs.
• There is a double envelope system.
• Cell division occurs by mitosis.
• Flagella if present is 11- stranded. 
• Chrysophytes include diatoms and golden algae.
• Dinoflagellates are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
• Euglenoids are found in stagnant water.
• Slime moulds are saprophytic.
• Protozoans are heterotrophs.

3.Kingdom Fungi: Mildews, yeasts, mushrooms, bracket fungi, etc.

• Multicellular, spore-producing, eukaryotic organisms.
• Organisms are heterotrophic.
• The body of the fungus is filamentous called mycelium and filaments are called hyphae.
• Hyphae are multicellular and nuclei are small.
• The walls having chitin and noncellulosic polysaccharides.
• Reproduction is sexual and asexual.
• Glycogen and fat is food reserve.
• Phycomycetes are in aquatic habitats.
• Ascomycetes are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic.
• Basidiomycetes are mushrooms, puffballs.
• Deuteromycetes are imperfect fungi. 

  

  Image 2: Fungi

  4. Kingdom Plantae: 
• Organisms are eukaryotic, multicellular, and indefinite growth.
• Nutrition is autotrophic.
• Photosynthetic activities are performed in plastids.
• Plants are fixed or free-floating.
• Starch and fat is food reserve.
• Heterotrophic plants are parasitic.
• Reproduction is sexual and asexual.
• Active locomotion is not found.

Image 3: Plants

  5. Kingdom Animalia: 

• Multicellular, eukaryotic, and with a regular body.
• An organ system is organized into different organisms.
• Response to stimuli is present.
• Photosynthetic pigments are absent.
• For mobility muscle cells are present.
• Reproduction is sexual.
• The embryo is formed.

Image 4: Animals

Virus:

• Nucleoprotein particle.
• Ultramicroscopic, obligatory parasite
• The capsid is an outer protective covering.
• Viruses are intermediate between living and non-living.
• Genetic material is either DNA or RNA  but no virus contains both.
• Plant viruses e.g., Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Potato Mosaic virus, Tomato leaf curl, etc.
• Animal virus e.g., Poliomyelitis virus, Influenza virus, Smallpox virus, Mumps virus, etc.
• Phagineae e.g., Bacteriophages, coliphages, cyanophages, phycophages, mycophages etc.
• Lysogenic Phase- viral genome gets integrate into the host DNA, the virus is non-virulent.
• Lytic Phase- viral genome does not integrate to the host DNA, virus is virulent.

Image 5: Virus

Viroid:

• RNA particle.
• The protein coat is not present.
• Small in size
• The low molecular weight of RNA

Lichens:

• Formed by fungus and algal called phycobiont.
• The relation is called mutualism.
• Algal provide food for fungus and fungus provide shelter.

Mycorrhiza:

• Association between fungus and root of the higher plant (pine).
• It is an example of mutualism.

Conclusion: Arranging of livings into the groups on the basis of affinities in the hierarchy of categories.

In this chapter, Biological Classification above the information is completed in detail with images.

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